The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins
Intelligent life on a planet comes of age when it first works out the reason of its own existence.
The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins is widely regarded as magnum-opus of science writing. Richard Dawkins wrote it to correct a common misunderstanding about evolution. Many people believed evolution works for the good of the whole species, but Richard argues that natural selection acts on genes. Genes that help themselves survive and reproduce will be passed on, even if that sometimes goes against the benefit of the group or the individual. This "gene's-eye view" is not entirely new, but Richard made it clear and engaging for everyday readers.
The book is divided into 13 chapters. In these chapters Richard discusses following major themes :
Concepts of Altruistic and Selfish Behavior
Genetical Definition of Self-Interest
Evolution of Aggressive Behavior
Kinship Theory
Sex Theory
Reciprocal Altruism & Deceit
Natural Selection of Sex Differences
Let’s explore big ideas in each chapter.
Ch 01: Why Are People?
This book gives a new way to look at Darwin's theory. Instead of thinking about evolution as something that helps a whole species, it explains it as a story about selfishness and kindness in nature.
Many people wrongly believe that animals evolve for the good of their group or species. But this isn’t true. Animals are like machines built by their genes. These genes have been passed down for millions of years because they are good at surviving. The reason animals behave the way they do is because their genes "want" to keep themselves going. Richard Dawkins calls this "selfishness," though it’s just a way of explaining how genes work. He’s not just talking about humans, but about all living things.
Sometimes, animals seem to act kindly or help others. But Richard shows that these acts often help the animal’s genes survive , so even kindness can be a kind of selfishness from a gene’s point of view. Most scientists agree that natural selection works at the level of the individual, not the group. But Richard wants us to go one step further to see evolution from the point of view of the gene itself.
Ch 02: The Replicators
Life on Earth probably began when simple chemical reactions created organic molecules. At some point, one of these molecules figured out how to make copies of itself. This first replicator sometimes made copying mistakes, which led to slightly different versions. Some versions were better at surviving and copying, so they became more common. Charles Darwin’s ‘survival of fittest’ is really a special case of a more general law of survival of stable.
Over time, these successful replicators pushed out the weaker ones. The success of any replicator depends upon its,
longevity (ability to survive for long time),
fecundity (ability to spread rapidly),
copying fidelity (ability to make accurate copies).
The replicators became the foundation for all living things. To help themselves survive, the replicators started building "survival machines" bodies to live in and protect them.
These early replicators were the ancestors of DNA, the genetic material we have today. Now, DNA lives safely inside living creatures, what Richard calls "gigantic lumbering robots." These creatures, including humans, are controlled by their genes. Genes use them to survive and spread.
Ch 03: Immortal Coils
All living things on Earth are made from the same basic chemistry. Every cell in an organism's body contains DNA. DNA is the genetic code that shapes how the body is built. This code is made from just four building blocks: A (adenine), T (thymine), C (cytosine), and G (guanine). These are arranged in different combinations to form genes, which are parts of DNA. DNA are found in chromosomes. Chromosomes are found in cell’s nucleus. Genes are like instruction manuals, shaped by natural selection, that tell the body how to grow and function.
DNA gives the instructions to make proteins, and proteins build the body. Since genes guide how an embryo develops, they help create the body that keeps them alive. So, genes are partly responsible for their own survival by helping to build strong, and efficient bodies. Gene is a basic unit of selfishness
During sexual reproduction, genes from both parents are mixed together to create a new set for the child. The exact combination of genes in one body may not last long, but the individual genes can be passed on again and again. Richard quotes scientist G.C. Williams, who said a gene is any part of a chromosome that lasts long enough to be shaped by natural selection.
A gene survives in gene-pool. Gene-pool is whole set of genetic climate or background modifying and influencing the effects of any particular genes. A gene that cooperates well is likely to met in successive bodies. An example of gene of sharp meat eating teeth are not inherently bad, but they become same in an herbivorous animal.
Ch 04: The Gene Machine
Richard in this chapter talks about living creatures, which he calls the "survival machines" for selfish genes. He explains that natural selection favors animals with more advanced body parts especially things like a nervous system that helps them understand and respond to the world around them. Other important steps in evolution include memory and consciousness.
He compares living creatures to computers. Just like a computer is programmed by a person, animals are programmed by their genes. The genes don’t give detailed step-by-step commands but offer general rules to help the animal survive.
He says genes are like policymakers, setting the big-picture goals, while the brain acts like the executive, making decisions based on those goals. As brains became more advanced, they started making more decisions on their own. Humans are special because our brains are so developed that we can sometimes go against what our genes "want." For example, a person might choose not to have children even though passing on genes is what the genes are programmed to do. Further a gene who is making good prediction about environment with built in capacity to learn is likely to survive more.
Gene influences behavior of not only of body in which they reside but also the others. One such mode of influence is communication. Songs in birds, tail-wagging in dogs, grinning in chimpanzees and human gestures are all examples of communication. The communication sometimes has element of deception like in case of bee orchids who strongly resembles female bees thereby inducing male bees to copulate with their flowers.
Ch 05 : Aggression
Richard points out that animals of the same species often show limited or controlled aggression toward each other. This may look like kindness, but it actually makes sense when you think about it as a smart choice. It’s not always worth it to fight and risk injury or death. Sometimes, avoiding a fight is the better option for survival.
Evolutionary biologist John Maynard Smith used game theory to study this idea. He introduced a concept called an evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS). This means a behavior pattern that works well over time and can’t easily be replaced by a new or different strategy.
For example, in some animal groups, the ESS might be a mix of some individuals are aggressive, while others are not. This mix stays balanced because it helps the group survive overall. ESSs can change over time, and in some cases, more than one strategy may exist in the same population. The key idea is that these behavior patterns help ensure the genes behind them continue to survive and spread.
Another idea proposed by John Maynard Smith is “War of Attrition”. In this strategy species never engages in combat. All disputes are settled by conventional posturing. In War of Attrition maintaining poker face is the ESS.
Richard also explains territorial defense strategy which is commonly observed in nature where residents of one place attack intruders. It is also an ESS. Further understanding one position, where weaker individual let stronger one has its way is aka dominance hierarchy is also an ESS.
At-last Richard argues that progressive evolution is not steady upward climb but a series of discrete step from one plateau to another in the form of punctuated equilibrium.
Ch 06: Genesmanship
Richard reminds us that a selfish gene isn’t just one piece of DNA in one body. It’s the total number of copies of that gene found in many different bodies. The main goal of the selfish gene is to make more copies of itself. To do that, it programs bodies not just to survive and reproduce, but also to help other bodies that carry the same gene.
So, when an animal helps its relatives, it may look like kindness, but it’s actually a way for the gene to help its own copies in other bodies. This behavior, though it seems unselfish on the surface, is selfish from the gene’s point of view. This is known as Kinship Theory which is given by WD Hamilton.
Genes can recognize their copies in close family members, so they “teach” animals to care more for their kin. This is not group selection, it’s gene selection. Richard is very clear about this. Some people think that helping family is a kind of group selection, but he argues strongly that evolution only works at the level of genes, not individuals or groups.
He compares this to how a person might buy life insurance they're willing to take a small risk or loss now if it means protecting something important. In the same way, an animal may take a risk to help a relative, because that relative carries the same genes. Ultimately, it’s all about helping the gene survive and spread.
Animals who live in smaller group are more altruistic as in such group possibilities of kin existence is high. For example adult male baboons reported to risk their lives against predators such as leopard to defend their troops. However some animals like cuckoo take undue advantage of kinship by placing their eggs in nest of other song-birds. This had led to evolutionary race between genes of discrimination in song birds vis a vis genes of mimicry in cuckoo for getting advantage of kinship.
In nature best estimate of kinship is more important than true kinship that’s why parental care is more common than brother/sister care. Even in parental care especially in certain species mother can be more sure of her children than father so maternal care becomes prominent than paternal care.
Richard also answers the questions regarding why parents care more for children and not vice-versa because of expectation of life reason. In any species where children have longer average life expectancy than parents, any gene that favor child care is at advantage.
Ch 07: Family Planning
As per Richard there is distinction between child bearing and child rearing genes. To some extent caring and bearing bound to compete with each other for an individual’s time and resources. Depending upon ecology, a mix of both is ESS. Though pure caring cannot be ESS.
Further the selfish gene theory does not disagree with the idea that animals sometimes limit how many babies they have. But Richard explains that they do this to increase the chances that their genes will survive into the next generation.
He talks about the work of ecologist David Lack, who studied how many eggs birds lay at one time. This is called a “clutch.” There are both good and bad sides to laying many eggs. Natural selection helps decide the best number. If a bird lays too many eggs, it may not be able to feed all the chicks, and some may die. So the number of eggs is often limited by how much food and care the parent birds can provide. Thus as per Richard, Welfare State in modern society that supports surplus children is an unnatural thing. Welfare State incentivizes selfish people to abuse it.
Sometimes, when a population becomes too crowded, animals may have fewer babies. Richard agrees that this happens. But he says the reason is not to help the group it’s so that the parent has a better chance of passing on its genes during hard times, like a famine. It’s still about gene survival, not helping the species as a whole.
Ch 08: Battle of the Generations
Richard now explores whether mothers sometimes favor one child over another. He explains that parental investment means any action a parent takes to help a child survive and have babies of their own, even if it reduces the parent’s ability to help other children.
From a gene’s point of view, a parent has no reason to favor one child over another, since all the children carry the same amount of the parent’s genes. But in real life, if one child is weak or unlikely to survive, the mother might focus on the stronger ones. She might even ignore or kill the weaker child to give the others a better chance. For example mother pigs some time devour their young and weak kids.
On the other hand, children may try to get more attention and care from their parents. Even though siblings are related, each child is more closely related to themselves than to their brothers or sisters. So, they may fight for food, push each other aside, or even kill a sibling to improve their own chances. Richard says there’s no conflict here. Whether the gene is in the parent or the child, it’s trying to make the best use of whatever power it has to survive and reproduce.
Richard also explain puzzling phenomenon of menopause in female. As per him its a part of adaptation process where gene favors life of grand-children born out of young mother than life of children born out of old mother. This is because of lower life expectancy of later than former.
Finally Richard concludes that battle of generations led to emergence of compromise between ideal situation desired by child and parents.
Ch 09: Battle of the Sexes
In all animals that reproduce through sex, males and females have one big difference: males produce many small sperm, while females produce fewer, larger eggs. According to Richard , all other differences between the sexes come from this basic fact.
From the very beginning at the moment of conception, the female invests more. Her egg provides food and resources for the developing baby, while the male’s sperm does not. This limits how many children a female can have, while a male can, in theory, father an unlimited number. Dawkins says, “Female exploitation begins here,” meaning that females often end up doing more of the work in raising young.
According to selfish gene theory, it’s best if the other parent does most of the child care. In many species, this job usually falls to the female. The fundamental evolutionary basis for exploitation is the fact that eggs are large then sperm. This is also called “Cruel Bind” by famous biologist Robert L. Triver and it is quite common in land dwelling species where male deserts female after copulation. However in fishes female forces male to rear child as she got opportunity first to desert. Here female has options to choose among males.
Sometime female try to deceive male to be step father. Natural selection severely penalizes such deception in the form of Bruce Effect. In Bruce Effect, a male mice secrete a chemical which when smelt by a pregnant female can cause her to abort. Females may delay mating to test whether a male will stick around or offer help, like food or protection, before agreeing to have his offspring.
For evolutionary reasons hybridization in which one species mate with other species is discouraged as it limits survivability of genes. For example when horse mates with donkey it produces mule who is sterile and cannot reproduce further.
In nature, generally male are more promiscuous than female as sperms are produce in more quantities then eggs. For example male peacock tail is more vibrant and colorful then female peacock. However modern western society of human is quite opposite to it where women are more interested in their appearance than men.
Both males and females want to have as many surviving offspring as possible. But because of their differences starting with the size of sperm and egg their approaches are different. Males often try to mate with as many females as possible and may leave after mating. This gives them the chance to father more children. Females usually try to choose strong, high-quality mates or wait until a male proves he’ll help raise the young. This gives her children a better chance of survival.
Ch 10: You Scratch My Back, I'll Ride on Yours
There is propensity on animals to show reciprocal altruism. Animal behavior shows many examples of what looks like kindness or self-sacrifice. One strong example is “kamikaze bees.” These bees sting attackers to protect their hive, even though they die after stinging. Since these bees cannot have babies themselves, it makes sense that they would sacrifice their lives to protect their close relatives, who share many of their genes.
WD Hamilton has given a model of “Geometry of Selfish Herd” where animal on seeing the predator tend to move from edge to center thereby causing animal aggregation. Further theories like Cave theory where bird camouflaged themselves by making sounds to alert about arrival of predator and Never break Rank theory where bird who break ranks become more susceptible to be eaten by predator favors altruism. Amotz Zahavi, a famous biologist also explained Thomson’s gazelle where they instead of hiding they display their prowess to predators by jumping high. As per Amotz such behavior is a kind of warning to predator to look for other unfit gazelles as a food.
There is another example given in this chapter when ants “milk” tiny insects called aphids by stroking their backs to get a sweet liquid called honeydew. In return, ants protect aphid eggs by keeping them safe inside their nests. This is also known as symbiotic relationship.
Richard explains that the genes in ants that encourage them to care for aphids are favored by natural selection, just like the genes in aphids that help them cooperate with ants are favored in their own population. This kind of mutual help, where both species benefit, evolves because it helps protect the genes of both ants and aphids.
As per RL Triver many of human psychological characteristics like envy, guilt, gratitude, sympathy , cheating and avoid being deceived are derived from reciprocal altruism.
Ch 11: Memes
Richard says that culture passes from person to person in a way similar to how genes pass from body to body. As per him all life evolves by the differential survival of replicating entities. He calls this new kind of replicator of cultural unit as a meme. A meme is an idea, habit, or piece of culture that spreads by copying from one brain to another. Meme propagates through imitation. Meme should be regarded as living structures not metaphorically but technically.
Just like genes spread by moving from body to body, memes spread by jumping from brain to brain through imitation when people copy each other. Because many memes compete for our attention, a meme can only become strong by pushing out or replacing other memes.
Richard says that both genes and memes usually try to gain short-term advantage, even if that is not the best choice in the long run. But he also believes that humans might be able to act with true kindness and even resist the power of their genes and memes.
Like genes, memes also survive in environment of mutually - assisting memes. Like faith survives in religious meme complex which include blind trust, absence of evidence, authority etc.
When we die there are two things left behind us : Genes and Memes. Our gene machine may not pass on beyond three generations but our meme machines in forms of ideas, stories, art, music, and culture may continue to survive generations after generations.
Ch 12: Nice Guys Finish First
Political scientist Robert Axelrod and evolutionary biologist W.D. Hamilton (1936–2000) used the gambling game called the Prisoner's Dilemma of Game Theory to explore cooperation and reciprocal altruism. Robert made a longer version of this game on a computer, which showed that helping others back (called reciprocal altruism) is often the best way to survive in game conditions where end is not known and its not zero-sum game. These two conditions are mostly present in nature.
A good example of this in nature is vampire bats. These bats share their blood meals with other bats who didn’t find food and might starve. They mostly share with their own babies, close relatives, and sometimes even with bats that are not related.
Richard jokes that these vampire bats could teach the rest of nature a lesson: even though genes are selfish, being kind and helping others can lead to winning in the long run.
Ch 13: The Long Reach of the Gene
Richard finishes this book by talking about an idea from his 1982 book, The Extended Phenotype. The phenotype is how a gene shows itself in the body by the physical traits it creates. But he says a gene’s effects don’t stop at the body. They can reach outside the body and change the world around it. He calls this the extended phenotype.
For example, beavers build dams and birds build nests. These are things created by genes but exist outside the animals’ bodies. A gene’s effects can also reach other living things, like how parasites affect their hosts.
Natural selection favors genes that can change the world to help themselves survive and spread. So, a selfish gene doesn’t just live inside one body. It can use other bodies and even change the environment to make sure it keeps making more copies of itself.
.Richard is confident that genetics will continue to be a powerful tool for uncovering the environments and histories of species from long ago. As he inspiringly puts and I totally agree with him that,
“The study of genes is not just about the past, but also a key to understanding the future of life on Earth.”
I hope you will find this book to be great eye opener just as me.
Have a happy reading !